Stage 2 of Kohlberg's preconventional morality is best described as?

• A. Obedience to authority and rules
• B. Punishment avoidance as the sole goal
• C. Individualism and exchange - judging actions by personal needs
• D. Universal principles guide decisions

Answer: (C)

Stage 2 centers on self-interest and reciprocity: people judge actions by whether they serve their own needs and by what they can get in return. In this stage, rules are seen as negotiable tools, and behavior is guided by personal gain or the expectation of a future favor. For example, someone might help a peer if it benefits them now or if they anticipate a reward or reciprocal help later. This contrasts with obedience and punishment reasoning, where the focus is simply on following rules to avoid trouble, and with higher stages where decisions are guided by universal principles or the welfare of others. Therefore, individualism and exchange—judging actions by personal needs—best captures Stage 2.